Colonial Cities: Urbanisation, Planning, and Architecture

Colonial Cities Urbanisation, Planning And Architecture (Intro)

British rule in India brought about significant changes not only in the political and economic spheres but also in the physical and social landscape, particularly in urban areas. The colonial period witnessed a shift in the character and importance of Indian cities, as new centres of power and commerce emerged, while some older centres declined. The British actively shaped the urban environment through planning and architecture, reflecting their imperial power, administrative needs, and racial biases.

Cities served various functions under colonial rule. They were centres of administration, trade, and military control. They were also places where Indians and British interacted, though often in segregated spaces. The development of cities like Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay, which became major ports and administrative capitals, exemplifies the transformation brought about by colonialism.

Understanding colonial cities involves examining how they grew, how they were planned, and how different groups of people lived within them. It also involves looking at the new architectural styles and urban forms that emerged, which often symbolised British dominance and aspirations in India.

Towns And Cities In Pre-Colonial Times (Context)

Before the advent of strong British influence, India had a diverse urban landscape. Towns and cities played different roles within the various kingdoms and empires that existed. These urban centres had developed organically over centuries, shaped by local economies, social structures, and political dynamics.

What Gave Towns Their Character?

Pre-colonial towns and cities served various purposes and derived their character from these functions:

• Administrative Centres: Cities like Delhi, Lahore, Agra, and Murshidabad were imperial capitals or provincial administrative centres. They housed the ruler's court, administrative offices, and military garrisons.
• Temple Towns: Places like Madurai, Kanchipuram, and Tirupati were built around major temples and acted as centres of pilgrimage, religious learning, and trade associated with the temple economy.
• Commercial Centres: Towns like Surat, Masulipatnam, and Dhaka were important ports or inland trading hubs, bustling with merchants, artisans, and traders.
• Craft Production Centres: Cities were often centres for specialised craft production, such as textiles (Murshidabad, Dhaka), metalwork, or jewellery.

The vibrancy of these towns depended on the stability of the ruling power, the prosperity of their economy, and their ability to attract merchants, artisans, and people seeking opportunities.

Changes In The Eighteenth Century

The 18th century was a period of political turmoil and transition in India. The decline of the Mughal Empire led to the rise of regional kingdoms. This had a significant impact on urban centres:

• Decline of Mughal Capitals: Cities associated with Mughal power, like Delhi and Agra, lost some of their importance as the empire weakened.
• Rise of New Regional Capitals: New regional powers established their own capitals, such as Lucknow under the Nawabs of Awadh, Hyderabad under the Nizam, Pune under the Marathas, and Seringapatam under Tipu Sultan. These new capitals became centres of administration, culture, and economic activity.
• Rise of Trading Centres: With increased trade and interaction with European trading companies, some ports and trading centres gained prominence.

This was a period of shifting urban landscapes, with older cities facing challenges and new cities emerging as centres of power and trade before the full impact of British colonial urbanisation took hold.

What Were The New Towns Like?

Under British rule, a new pattern of urbanisation emerged. Colonial cities were distinct from their pre-colonial counterparts in their purpose, layout, and social organisation. They were primarily shaped by the needs of the British empire – trade, administration, and military control.

Ports, Forts And Centres For Services

The most important new cities that developed under British rule were the Presidency towns of **Calcutta**, **Bombay**, and **Madras**. These were initially established as trading posts by the East India Company but grew into major commercial and administrative hubs.

• Ports: Their location on the coast was crucial for trade. They became the main points of entry and exit for goods traded between India and Britain. The flow of raw materials (like cotton, indigo, jute, tea) from India to Britain and manufactured goods from Britain to India passed through these ports.
• Forts: To protect their trading interests and later their territorial acquisitions, the British built forts around their settlements. Fort William in Calcutta, Fort St. George in Madras, and the Fort in Bombay were important defensive structures that also became the core administrative areas within these cities.
• Centres for Services: As administrative control expanded, these cities also became centres for colonial administration, judiciary, education, and other services required by the British and the growing urban population. They housed government offices, courts, schools, colleges, and hospitals.

These colonial cities were strategically located and designed to serve the interests of the British Empire.

A New Urban Milieu

The colonial cities created a new urban environment and social order. They were distinct from older Indian cities. They often had areas specifically designed for the British residents, separate from the areas where Indians lived.

• Drainage and Sanitation: The British paid attention to sanitation and drainage, particularly in the "White" areas, due to concerns about disease. This led to the development of municipal services, although these were often inadequate in the Indian parts of the city.
• Transport: New modes of transport like trams and railways were introduced, facilitating movement within and between cities, and connecting ports to inland areas for trade.
• Public Buildings: Grand public buildings like government offices, courts, railway stations, and museums were constructed in European architectural styles, symbolising British power and modernity.

This created a new urban milieu that reflected colonial priorities and hierarchical social structures.

The First Hill Stations

The British also developed hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Darjeeling, and Ooty. These hill stations were primarily established for strategic and health reasons.

• Military Needs: Hill stations provided cooler climates for the British army to rest and recuperate. They also served as strategic locations for garrisons.
• Health Concerns: The British found the Indian plains' hot climate and tropical diseases challenging. Hill stations offered a refuge with a more familiar, temperate climate.
• Administrative Convenience: Shimla became the summer capital of the British Indian government, allowing administrators to escape the heat of Delhi or Calcutta.

These hill stations were essentially European enclaves in the Indian landscape, designed with European-style houses, gardens, and infrastructure, creating a distinct colonial social and cultural space.

Social Life In The New Cities

Social life in colonial cities was often segregated. The European areas (often called "White Towns" or Civil Lines) were typically cleaner, better planned, and had better infrastructure than the Indian areas ("Black Towns"). Clubs, theatres, and social gatherings were often exclusive to the European population.

Indians from different regions, speaking different languages and following different customs, came to live and work in these cities, creating a more cosmopolitan, yet often segregated, urban society. The growth of a new Indian middle class, educated in Western ways and employed in colonial administration or emerging professions, was a significant social development in these cities.

Segregation, Town Planning And Architecture Madras, Calcutta And Bombay

The three Presidency towns – Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay – served as models for colonial urban development. Their growth reflects the British approach to town planning, which often involved segregation, and their architectural styles, which aimed to assert imperial power and cultural superiority.

Settlement And Segregation In Madras

Madras (now Chennai) was one of the earliest British settlements. It developed around **Fort St. George**. The British established two distinct areas:

• White Town: This area, within or near the Fort, was exclusively for Europeans. It was well-planned, with broad streets, houses with gardens, and administrative buildings.
• Black Town: This area, located outside the Fort walls, was where Indian merchants, artisans, and labourers lived. It was typically unplanned, congested, and lacked proper sanitation compared to the White Town. Different caste and community groups often lived in distinct quarters within the Black Town.

This clear segregation based on race and class was a defining feature of colonial urban planning, aimed at maintaining social distance and asserting British dominance.

Town Planning In Calcutta

Calcutta (now Kolkata) grew around the British settlement of **Fort William**. After the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the consolidation of British power, Calcutta became the capital of British India until 1911.

Town planning efforts in Calcutta were influenced by military needs and the desire for imposing administrative spaces. The area around Fort William was cleared to create a large open space called the **Maidan**, intended to provide a clear line of fire in case of attack. This also created a grand open area that contrasted with the congested Indian parts of the city.

The construction of grand public buildings, wide roads, and organised parks in the European parts of the city reflected the British vision of an imperial capital. The establishment of the **Improvement Trust** in the late 19th and early 20th centuries aimed at improving sanitation and clearing congested areas, but often this also led to the displacement of the poor Indian population.

Architecture In Bombay

Bombay (now Mumbai) became a major port and commercial centre, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, which reduced the sea route between Europe and India. Bombay's architecture during the colonial period showcased a blend of European styles.

Victorian Gothic Revival was a popular style for public buildings in Bombay in the late 19th century. Examples include the **Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus** (formerly Victoria Terminus), the **University of Bombay**, and the **High Court**. These buildings were grand, elaborate, and intended to impress and assert British power.

Later, Indo-Saracenic architecture, which combined elements of Indo-Islamic and European styles, also became popular. Buildings like the **Gateway of India** exemplify this style. This architectural trend sometimes represented an attempt to create a distinct 'colonial Indian' style, though it was still fundamentally shaped by British ideas.

The planning and architecture in these cities were not merely functional; they were expressions of power, identity, and the colonial relationship. They created distinct urban landscapes that symbolised the segregation and hierarchy of colonial society.